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Software development is a tough business. We expect modern software systems to have exponentially more functionality than we expected from them only a few years ago. We often develop these systems with ever-dwindling budgets and sharply reduced timeframes, all in an effort to improve efficiency and productivity. However, we cannot lament these issues. These very issues drive us to deliver software that s better, faster, and cheaper. As we ve raced to develop each generation of software system, we ve added significantly to the complexity of our IT systems. Thirty years ago, an IT shop might have maintained a single significant software system. Today most IT shops are responsible for dozens, and sometimes hundreds, of software systems. The interactions between these systems are increasingly complex. By placing a premium on delivering on time, we often sacrifice architecture and design, promising ourselves that we ll refactor the system some time in the future. We ve developed technologies that can generate large quantities of code from software models or template code. Some of the side effects of this race into the future are a prevalence of point-to-point integrations between software applications, tight coupling at those integration points, lots of code, and little configuration.

In the late 1990s, Windows programming using the Microsoft platform had fractured into a number of branches. Most programmers were using Visual Basic (VB), C, or C++. Some C and C++ programmers were using the raw Win32 API, but most were using the Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC). Others had moved to the Component Object Model (COM). All these technologies had their own problems. The raw Win32 API was not object-oriented, and using it required a lot more work than MFC. MFC was object-oriented, but was inconsistent and getting old. COM, although conceptually simple, was complex in its actual coding, and required lots of ugly, inelegant plumbing. Another shortcoming of all these programming technologies was that they were aimed primarily at developing code for the desktop rather than the Internet. At the time, programming for the Web was an afterthought and seemed very different from coding for the desktop.

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Figure 1-2. Class diagram of Book and Publisher Object/relational mapping (ORM) frameworks help you take advantage of the features present in the object model (like Java) and the relational model (like database management systems [DBMS]). With the help of ORM frameworks, you can persist objects in Java to relational tables using metadata that describes the mapping between the objects and the database. The metadata shields the complexity of dealing directly with SQL and helps you develop solutions in terms of business objects. An ORM solution can be implemented at various levels: Pure relational: An application is designed around the relational model. Light object mapping: Entities are represented as classes and are mapped manually to relational tables. Medium object mapping: An application is designed using an object model, and SQL is generated during build time using code-generation utilities. Full object mapping: This mapping supports sophisticated object modeling including composition, inheritance, polymorphism, and persistence by reachability.

Software development today is tactical and project oriented. Developers and architects frequently think in terms of individual software applications, and therefore their designs and implementations directly reflect this thinking. As a result, individual applications are directly integrated with one another in a point-to-point manner. A point-to-point integration is where one application depends on another specific application. For example, in Figure 1-1, the CustomerContactManager (CCM) application uses the Billing application interface. You can say that the CCM application knows about the billing application. You also hear this kind of relationship referred to as a dependency, because one application depends on another application to function correctly.

What we really needed was a new start an integrated, object-oriented development framework that would bring consistency and elegance back to programming. To meet this need, Microsoft set out to develop a code execution environment and a code development environment that met these goals, which are listed in Figure 1-1.

In 2002, Microsoft released the .NET Framework, which promised to address the old problems and meet the goals for the next-generation system. The .NET Framework is a much more

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